Иммануил Кант

Kant jettisoned traditional theistic proofs for God as utilized by natural theology, but sought to ground ethics, in part, in his concepts of categorical imperatives or universal maxims to guide morality.

I Kant Even: German Chancellor Triggered After Putin Quotes Legendary Philosopher

Or should we beware of it as a threat and more often than not dismiss it? These questions raise important economic and educational issues on which philosophy sometimes throws precious light. We will see it from an example of the thought of Emmanuel Kant 1724-1804 on education. Let us begin by recalling some of these digital issues that current events force us to consider. There is of course first of all this crucial question of distance schooling, which the crisis we are going through has forced us to practice. What lessons can be learned from it? Steve Bissonnette and Christian Boyer reviewed research from eight countries on these questions. The decline in learning seems to be demonstrated for all clienteles, and even more strongly for children in primary schools from less fortunate families, less educated and for those who have learning difficulties or who are fragile in their learning. This conclusion is consistent with what we observed about the virtual school before the pandemic and strongly suggests that, if there is no choice, as was the case with the pandemic, it can be.

But if we have the choice … Can one-off innovations be desirable and welcome?

Также, по его словам, одна из серьезнейших угроз для существования Европы — ее собственная деморализация. Мы не такие, как остальные.

Мы никогда не должны забывать об этом. Европа не просто кусок земли — это концепция человечества", — подчеркнул Эммануэль Макрон. Россия вынуждает Макрона вновь призывать к "европейскому кредиту" ради инвестиций в вооружениеВо время выступления в Сорбонне Эммануэль Макрон затронул вопрос безопасности Европы из-за "угрозы со стороны России", пишет Le Figaro.

Французский президент в очередной раз громко заявил, что континенту необходимо вооружаться. Читатели издания не оценили эту воинственность — и кое-чем Макрона пристыдили. Речь об идеологии, которая, как ее ни маскировали, по своей сути является опасной, ксенофобской, империалистической и милитаристской.

Многочисленные американские войны наглядно демонстрируют последствия этой идеологии. Эммануэль Макрон, по-видимому, хотел бы скопировать модель и перенести ее на Европу. При этом он понимает, что вассальный статус Европы в отношениях с США, — серьезное препятствие к реализации этой задумки.

Правда, как я уже писал, вассальный статус не мешает Макрону, когда, по его мнению, не время возмущаться, и движут им в эти моменты исключительно французские, а не европейские интересы. Кроме того, слова о том, что Европа "особенная", конечно, справедливы, но не в том смысле или не только в том, о котором говорит французский президент. Ведь Европа — колыбель колониализма, тяжелой и жестокой эксплуатации остального мира.

Вспомним, что именно Франция была одним из лидеров этого порядка при всех ее прогрессивных достижениях, которые у нее не отнять, но которые ее и не оправдывают. Сейчас постепенно освобождаются некоторые страны Западной Африки, которые еще долго после формального обретения самостоятельности оставались под косвенным французским экономическим и политическим контролем. Восстания в таких странах, как Буркина-Фасо, Нигер, Мали, и даже демократический переворот в Сенегале показывают ослабление французского влияния, а значит, и ограничение возможностей Парижа эксплуатировать эти бедные, но богатые ресурсами, африканские страны.

Понятно, что французскую элиту устраивает нарратив о том, что все это происходит из-за "российского влияния", хотя это мнение далеко от истины.

To discover Follow information on the war in Ukraine with the Figaro application But a geographer will see it as a sign of an old grudge. Because, at the time, this enclave was not Russian, but constituted the eastern slope of Prussia, a region fortified by the Teutonic knights from the 13th century. As "one of the founding fathers of the modern West" , Immanuel Kant "laid the foundations of classical German philosophy" , cutting it off from , he explains quite generally, without say more about these values.

Будучи уверенным, что на врачей и лекарства того времени полагаться нельзя, Иммануил Кант придумал строгий распорядок дня, который должен был укрепить его тело и разум. Первые часы после пробуждения он посвящал собственным работам, далее отправлялся в университет читать лекции. Затем следовал единственный прием пищи за сутки — плотный обед в час дня. Обедал Кант всегда в компании друзей, среди которых были представители кенигсбергской знати и купечества. Чтобы беседа за столом была оживленной и интересной, философ даже придумал собственное правило: число гостей должно быть больше количества граций, но не превышать количество муз.

А еще на обедах его доме говорили о чем угодно, но не о философии. Во второй половине дня Кант в одиночестве совершал продолжительную прогулку, строго следуя по одному и тому же маршруту. Некая эксцентричность привычек не мешала философу вести светский образ жизни — у него было много знакомств и приятелей, а сам он был галантен с дамами. Читал лекции по теоретической физике и тригонометрии Когда в марте 1746 года умер отец Иммануила Канта Георг, тому пришлось на время взять на себя домашние хлопоты, в том числе заботу о двух младших сестрах 17 и 14 лет и 9-летнем брате. В 1748-м Кант покинул Кенигсберг, стал давать частные уроки и на время забыл об университетской жизни. Вернулся обратно он только спустя шесть лет, в 1754 году, и с тех пор его жизнь была связана с университетом и преподаванием. В апреле 1755-го Иммануил Кант получил степень магистра, а в июне, защитив латинскую диссертацию «Новое освещение первых принципов метафизического познания», — докторскую степень и звание приват-доцента философии. Но была одна тонкость: он не получал от университета деньги, только гонорары от студентов за посещение лекций. Поэтому Кант начал активно и много преподавать.

Immanuel Kant and Nazism

Подробная информация о фильме Последние дни Иммануила Канта на сайте Кинопоиск. В рамках международного Кантовского конгресса в Калининграде инициаторы развития «Балтийской платформы» – ИМЭМО РАН, МГИМО МИД России, БФУ имени И. Канта при. Просмотрите свежий пост @fakepontchartrain в Tumblr на тему "emmanuel kant". Browse Getty Images' premium collection of high-quality, authentic Emmanuel Kant stock photos, royalty-free images, and pictures.

Putin has not the slightest reason to refer to Kant. Let us note that earlier the governor of the Kaliningrad region, Anton Alikhanov, called the philosopher Immanuel Kant a Russian trophy. Kant for us is a Russian trophy. Like everything you see in the Kaliningrad region - said Alikhanov.

Through the progressive integration of the unconscious we have a reasonable chance to make experiences of an archetypal nature providing us with the feeling of continuity before and after our existence. The better we understand the archetype, the more we participate in its life and the more we realize its eternity or timelessness. Many come to me with concerns that I cannot or may not discuss with others. But if subsequently people are seized by an idea that they cannot drop or that leads to failure, it has nothing to do with me.

На протяжении двух недель после его смерти безутешные земляки прощались с гениальным философом, однако спустя всего полгода в его доме уже хозяйничал какой-то купец, превративший жилище в кафе. Его имя ставят в один ряд с Аристотелем и Платоном, его книги стали основой для развития философского учения в мировом масштабе. Детство Родной город Иммануила Канта — Кенигсберг. Он родился 22 апреля 1724 года и прожил в нем всю жизнь до самой смерти. Отца будущего светила философии звали Иоганн Георг Кант, он был ремесленником-седельщиком. Мама — Анна Регина, занималась домом и растила двенадцать детей. Иммануил стал четвертым ребенком, многие из его братьев и сестер умерли в младенческом возрасте. Выжить удалось трем сестрам и двум братьям. Детство Иммануила прошло в небольшом доме, который полностью сгорел во время пожара в 18-м веке. Юношеские годы Кант провел среди обычных ремесленников и рабочих, живших на окраине Кёнигсберга. Историкам так и не удалось точно выяснить, кем же был по национальности великий философ. Одни утверждали, что предки по отцовской линии жили в Шотландии, однако эта информация так и осталась неподтвержденной. Родня по линии матери проживала в немецком городе Нюрнберге. Родители мальчика заложили основы духовного воспитания сына, они сами были глубоко верующими людьми и принадлежали к лютеранской церкви, а если точнее, то к ее особому течению — пиетизму. Учение заключалось в том, что человек находится непрестанно на глазах у Господа, поэтому должен соблюдать личное благочестие. Именно мама прививала детям основы вероисповедания, знакомила их с красотой окружающего мира. Проповеди в церкви и занятия, на которых изучали Библию, Анна Регина посещала вместе с детьми. Достаточно часто в доме Кантов можно было встретить доктора теологии Франца Шульца, который и заметил незаурядные способности Иммануила в изучении Библии, а еще умение выражать и отстаивать собственные суждения. Мальчику исполнилось 8, когда мама привела его в самую лучшую школу Кенигсберга. Это была гимназия им. Фридриха, и ее рекомендовал в качестве учебного заведения именно Шульц. Он сел за школьную парту в 1732 году и провел там восемь лет. Уроки начинались в семь часов и продолжались до девяти. Главными предметами были Ветхий и Новый заветы, теология, география, латынь, греческий и немецкий языки. Изучение философии начиналось в старшей школе, и Иммануил всегда говорил, что этот предмет изучали неправильно. Заниматься математикой можно было только за деньги, к тому же, если у ученика имелось желание. Родители уже видели сына в сане священника, но мальчик с большим интересом изучал латынь и мечтал в будущем стать преподавателем словесности. К тому же, ученикам религиозной школы приходилось подчиняться строгим правилам и нравам этого заведения, а Канту это очень не нравилось. Иммануил никогда не отличался крепким здоровьем, однако показывал отличные успехи в учебе, все благодаря природной сообразительности и недюжинным умственным способностям. В возрасте тринадцати лет мальчик потерял маму.

Daily Mail: Канте хочет перейти в «Интер»

По состоянию на 21. Праздник народного волеизъявления продолжится до 30 ноября 2018 года. Как голосуют за Канта В голосовании по проекту «Великие имена России» калининградцы проявляют большую, чем в среднем активность при сравнении с другими регионами страны. Проголосовать за одно из предложенных имён для аэропорта Храброво можно здесь.

This endeavor, Kant argues, is doomed to failure, which he claims to demonstrate by showing that reason, unbounded by sense, is always capable of generating opposing or otherwise incompatible conclusions. Like "the light dove, in free flight cutting through the air, the resistance of which it feels", reason "could get the idea that it could do even better in airless space". He presents the speculative excesses of traditional metaphysics as inherent in our very capacity of reason. Moreover, he argues that its products are not without some carefully qualified regulative value. They are different from the concepts of understanding in that they are not limited by the critical stricture limiting knowledge to the conditions of possible experience and its objects. Kant replaces the first with the positive results of the first part of the Critique. He proposes to replace the following three with his later doctrines of anthropology, the metaphysical foundations of natural science, and the critical postulation of human freedom and morality.

He does this by developing contradictions in each of the three metaphysical disciplines that he contends are in fact pseudosciences. In this context, it not possible to do much more than enumerate the topics of discussion. The first chapter addresses what Kant terms the paralogisms—i. He argues that one cannot take the mere thought of "I" in the proposition "I think" as the proper cognition of "I" as an object. In this way, he claims to debunk various metaphysical theses about the substantiality, unity, and self-identity of the soul. Originally, Kant had thought that all transcendental illusion could be analyzed in antinomic terms. Whereas an idea is a pure concept generated by reason, an ideal is the concept of an idea as an individual thing. In an Appendix to this section, Kant rejects such a conclusion. The ideas of pure reason, he argues, have an important regulatory function in directing and organizing our theoretical and practical inquiry. With regard to morality , Kant argued that the source of the good lies not in anything outside the human subject, either in nature or given by God , but rather is only the good will itself.

A good will is one that acts from duty in accordance with the universal moral law that the autonomous human being freely gives itself. This law obliges one to treat humanity—understood as rational agency, and represented through oneself as well as others—as an end in itself rather than merely as means to other ends the individual might hold. Kant is known for his theory that all moral obligation is grounded in what he calls the " categorical imperative ", which is derived from the concept of duty. He argues that the moral law is a principle of reason itself, not based on contingent facts about the world, such as what would make us happy; to act on the moral law has no other motive than "worthiness to be happy". Kant finds it a source of difficulty that the practical idea of freedom is founded on the transcendental idea of freedom, [132] but for the sake of practical interests uses the practical meaning, taking "no account of... Reason can give us only the "pragmatic laws of free action through the senses", but pure practical laws given by reason a priori dictate "what is to be done". For Kant, although actions as theoretical objects are constituted by means of the theoretical categories, actions as practical objects objects of practical use of reason, and which can be good or bad are constituted by means of the categories of freedom. Only in this way can actions, as phenomena, be a consequence of freedom, and be understood and evaluated as such. A hypothetical imperative is one that we must obey to satisfy contingent desires. A categorical imperative binds us regardless of our desires: for example, everyone has a duty to respect others as individual ends in themselves, regardless of circumstances, even though it is sometimes in our narrowly selfish interest to not do so.

These imperatives are morally binding because of the categorical form of their maxims, rather than contingent facts about an agent. We owe a duty to rationality by virtue of being rational agents; therefore, rational moral principles apply to all rational agents at all times. He claims that these are necessarily equivalent, as all being expressions of the pure universality of the moral law as such; [138] many scholars are not convinced. A contradiction in conception happens when, if a maxim were to be universalized, it ceases to make sense, because the "maxim would necessarily destroy itself as soon as it was made a universal law". The maxim is not moral because it is logically impossible to universalize—that is, we could not conceive of a world where this maxim was universalized.

The group was escorted through the back doors of the Kodak Theater with no idea what was in store, as Kimmel had the house lights turned down. When the tourists—Awww, ordinary slobs! Look, Meryl! The little people!

Jimmy thinks its funny. Of course, any drama that Gibson directs pales in comparison to his own behind-the-scenes odyssey: the story of an odious individual who, after years on the outskirts of Hollywood, has somehow managed to fight his way back into the mainstream. Have some damn respect for those who did risked their lives incredible things so hacks like you can write garbage like that and be paid for it, you stupid, stupid fool.

Emmanuel Kant royalty-free images

Когда принималось решение широко отметить 300-летие немецкого философа Иммануила Канта, необходимость интеграции отечественной гуманитарной науки с мировой еще не. Эммануэль, но не Кант! Шольц для Путина является более весомой фигурой, который представляет интересы бизнеса Германии. Путин видит давление, которому подвергается. Писатель Марк Мэнсон рассказал об этическом принципе, на котором базируется философия Канта — мыслителя, чьи идеи актуальны до сих пор. Does Scholz have the right to prohibit anyone from quoting Kant? Emmanuel Kant is a figure of world heritage, not a Scholtz pocket dog!

Канте прошёл вторую часть медобследования перед переходом в «Аль-Иттихад»

Reform of institutions: Emmanuel Macron receives François Hollande at the Élysée. Слушайте Doing Nothing with Emmanuel Kant от ParisPiano на Deezer. Благодаря потоковой трансляции музыки на Deezer вы можете слушать более 120 млн треков. Emmanuel Kant, Gravure sur bois, publiée en 1881. Лоран Канте родился в 1961 году в семье школьных учителей, киноискусство он изучал сначала в Марселе, а потом — в парижской Высшей школе кинематографистов. Адмиралы Балтийского флота уверены, что Канта звали Эммануэль. Эммануэль Кант.#кант #балтфлот

Голосование "Великие имена": в самолётах Канта уже называют "Эммануилом"

The first major hypothesis is the energy is evenly distributed across the universe. A second theory defines dark energy as varying in density over time and space. BFU professor Artyom Yurok said depending on which theory was true, it could lead to the end of the universe.

В США очень много пропаганды по поводу России, однако, я был очень рад получить такую прекрасную возможность посетить город Канта. Третий день Кантовского конгресса начался с пленарного доклада Эккарта Штайна д-р хабил. На конгрессе доктор Штайн представил доклад «Фундаментальная важность Канта для физики XXI века», который также вызвал большой интерес у участников дискуссии из разных стран. В молодости он изучал Ньютона и Лейбница. Так что он был знаком со всеми физическими понятиями, — рассказал доктор Штайн.

This is called exploitation, and using unconsenting human beings as a means to an end. Jimmy thinks its funny. Of course, any drama that Gibson directs pales in comparison to his own behind-the-scenes odyssey: the story of an odious individual who, after years on the outskirts of Hollywood, has somehow managed to fight his way back into the mainstream.

Have some damn respect for those who did risked their lives incredible things so hacks like you can write garbage like that and be paid for it, you stupid, stupid fool.

В 2022-2023 г. Проект направлен на развитие научно-экспертного и общественного диалога между странами большого Балтийско-Скандинавского региона: странами ЕС — с одной стороны и Россией и Белоруссией — с другой, с привлечением экспертов из других стран и регионов мира. Главная цель — возобновление научно-экспертного диалога по «второму треку» по широкому перечню тематик между российскими и европейскими учеными: от социальных, экономических, экологических, культурных до проблем военной и невоенной безопасности. Комментарии 0.

Канте может перейти в «Арсенал» летом

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Канте прошёл вторую часть медобследования перед переходом в «Аль-Иттихад»

But just as Kant denies that things in themselves are the only or privileged reality, he also denies that correspondence with things in themselves is the only kind of truth. Empirical judgments are true just in case they correspond with their empirical objects in accordance with the a priori principles that structure all possible human experience. But the fact that Kant can appeal in this way to an objective criterion of empirical truth that is internal to our experience has not been enough to convince some critics that Kant is innocent of an unacceptable form of skepticism, mainly because of his insistence on our irreparable ignorance about things in themselves. The role of things in themselves, on the two-object interpretation, is to affect our senses and thereby to provide the sensory data from which our cognitive faculties construct appearances within the framework of our a priori intuitions of space and time and a priori concepts such as causality. But if there is no space, time, change, or causation in the realm of things in themselves, then how can things in themselves affect us? Transcendental affection seems to involve a causal relation between things in themselves and our sensibility. If this is simply the way we unavoidably think about transcendental affection, because we can give positive content to this thought only by employing the concept of a cause, while it is nevertheless strictly false that things in themselves affect us causally, then it seems not only that we are ignorant of how things in themselves really affect us. It seems, rather, to be incoherent that things in themselves could affect us at all if they are not in space or time.

On this view, transcendental idealism does not distinguish between two classes of objects but rather between two different aspects of one and the same class of objects. That is, appearances are aspects of the same objects that also exist in themselves. So, on this reading, appearances are not mental representations, and transcendental idealism is not a form of phenomenalism. One version treats transcendental idealism as a metaphysical theory according to which objects have two aspects in the sense that they have two sets of properties: one set of relational properties that appear to us and are spatial and temporal, and another set of intrinsic properties that do not appear to us and are not spatial or temporal Langton 1998. This property-dualist interpretation faces epistemological objections similar to those faced by the two-objects interpretation, because we are in no better position to acquire knowledge about properties that do not appear to us than we are to acquire knowledge about objects that do not appear to us. Moreover, this interpretation also seems to imply that things in themselves are spatial and temporal, since appearances have spatial and temporal properties, and on this view appearances are the same objects as things in themselves. But Kant explicitly denies that space and time are properties of things in themselves.

A second version of the two-aspects theory departs more radically from the traditional two-objects interpretation by denying that transcendental idealism is at bottom a metaphysical theory. Instead, it interprets transcendental idealism as a fundamentally epistemological theory that distinguishes between two standpoints on the objects of experience: the human standpoint, from which objects are viewed relative to epistemic conditions that are peculiar to human cognitive faculties namely, the a priori forms of our sensible intuition ; and the standpoint of an intuitive intellect, from which the same objects could be known in themselves and independently of any epistemic conditions Allison 2004. Human beings cannot really take up the latter standpoint but can form only an empty concept of things as they exist in themselves by abstracting from all the content of our experience and leaving only the purely formal thought of an object in general. So transcendental idealism, on this interpretation, is essentially the thesis that we are limited to the human standpoint, and the concept of a thing in itself plays the role of enabling us to chart the boundaries of the human standpoint by stepping beyond them in abstract but empty thought. One criticism of this epistemological version of the two-aspects theory is that it avoids the objections to other interpretations by attributing to Kant a more limited project than the text of the Critique warrants. There are passages that support this reading. The transcendental deduction The transcendental deduction is the central argument of the Critique of Pure Reason and one of the most complex and difficult texts in the history of philosophy.

Given its complexity, there are naturally many different ways of interpreting the deduction. The goal of the transcendental deduction is to show that we have a priori concepts or categories that are objectively valid, or that apply necessarily to all objects in the world that we experience. To show this, Kant argues that the categories are necessary conditions of experience, or that we could not have experience without the categories. For they then are related necessarily and a priori to objects of experience, since only by means of them can any object of experience be thought at all. The transcendental deduction of all a priori concepts therefore has a principle toward which the entire investigation must be directed, namely this: that they must be recognized as a priori conditions of the possibility of experiences whether of the intuition that is encountered in them, or of the thinking. Concepts that supply the objective ground of the possibility of experience are necessary just for that reason. Here Kant claims, against the Lockean view, that self-consciousness arises from combining or synthesizing representations with one another regardless of their content.

In short, Kant has a formal conception of self-consciousness rather than a material one. Since no particular content of my experience is invariable, self-consciousness must derive from my experience having an invariable form or structure, and consciousness of the identity of myself through all of my changing experiences must consist in awareness of the formal unity and law-governed regularity of my experience. The continuous form of my experience is the necessary correlate for my sense of a continuous self. There are at least two possible versions of the formal conception of self-consciousness: a realist and an idealist version. On the realist version, nature itself is law-governed and we become self-conscious by attending to its law-governed regularities, which also makes this an empiricist view of self-consciousness. The idea of an identical self that persists throughout all of our experience, on this view, arises from the law-governed regularity of nature, and our representations exhibit order and regularity because reality itself is ordered and regular. Kant rejects this realist view and embraces a conception of self-consciousness that is both formal and idealist.

According to Kant, the formal structure of our experience, its unity and law-governed regularity, is an achievement of our cognitive faculties rather than a property of reality in itself. Our experience has a constant form because our mind constructs experience in a law-governed way. In other words, even if reality in itself were law-governed, its laws could not simply migrate over to our mind or imprint themselves on us while our mind is entirely passive. We must exercise an active capacity to represent the world as combined or ordered in a law-governed way, because otherwise we could not represent the world as law-governed even if it were law-governed in itself. Moreover, this capacity to represent the world as law-governed must be a priori because it is a condition of self-consciousness, and we would already have to be self-conscious in order to learn from our experience that there are law-governed regularities in the world. So it is necessary for self-consciousness that we exercise an a priori capacity to represent the world as law-governed. But this would also be sufficient for self-consciousness if we could exercise our a priori capacity to represent the world as law-governed even if reality in itself were not law-governed.

In that case, the realist and empiricist conception of self-consciousness would be false, and the formal idealist view would be true. Self-consciousness for Kant therefore involves a priori knowledge about the necessary and universal truth expressed in this principle of apperception, and a priori knowledge cannot be based on experience. The next condition is that self-consciousness requires me to represent an objective world distinct from my subjective representations — that is, distinct from my thoughts about and sensations of that objective world. Kant uses this connection between self-consciousness and objectivity to insert the categories into his argument. In order to be self-conscious, I cannot be wholly absorbed in the contents of my perceptions but must distinguish myself from the rest of the world. But if self-consciousness is an achievement of the mind, then how does the mind achieve this sense that there is a distinction between the I that perceives and the contents of its perceptions? According to Kant, the mind achieves this sense by distinguishing representations that necessarily belong together from representations that are not necessarily connected but are merely associated in a contingent way.

Imagine a house that is too large to fit into your visual field from your vantage point near its front door. Now imagine that you walk around the house, successively perceiving each of its sides. Eventually you perceive the entire house, but not all at once, and you judge that each of your representations of the sides of the house necessarily belong together as sides of one house and that anyone who denied this would be mistaken. But now imagine that you grew up in this house and associate a feeling of nostalgia with it. You would not judge that representations of this house are necessarily connected with feelings of nostalgia. That is, you would not think that other people seeing the house for the first time would be mistaken if they denied that it is connected with nostalgia, because you recognize that this house is connected with nostalgia for you but not necessarily for everyone. The point here is not that we must successfully identify which representations necessarily belong together and which are merely associated contingently, but rather that to be self-conscious we must at least make this general distinction between objective and merely subjective connections of representations.

That is the aim of the copula is in them: to distinguish the objective unity of given representations from the subjective. Kant is speaking here about the mental act of judging that results in the formation of a judgment. We must represent an objective world in order to distinguish ourselves from it, and we represent an objective world by judging that some representations necessarily belong together. Moreover, recall from 4. It follows that objective connections in the world cannot simply imprint themselves on our mind. The understanding constructs experience by providing the a priori rules, or the framework of necessary laws, in accordance with which we judge representations to be objective. These rules are the pure concepts of the understanding or categories, which are therefore conditions of self-consciousness, since they are rules for judging about an objective world, and self-consciousness requires that we distinguish ourselves from an objective world.

Kant identifies the categories in what he calls the metaphysical deduction, which precedes the transcendental deduction. But since categories are not mere logical functions but instead are rules for making judgments about objects or an objective world, Kant arrives at his table of categories by considering how each logical function would structure judgments about objects within our spatio-temporal forms of intuition. For example, he claims that categorical judgments express a logical relation between subject and predicate that corresponds to the ontological relation between substance and accident; and the logical form of a hypothetical judgment expresses a relation that corresponds to cause and effect. Taken together with this argument, then, the transcendental deduction argues that we become self-conscious by representing an objective world of substances that interact according to causal laws. To see why this further condition is required, consider that so far we have seen why Kant holds that we must represent an objective world in order to be self-conscious, but we could represent an objective world even if it were not possible to relate all of our representations to this objective world. For all that has been said so far, we might still have unruly representations that we cannot relate in any way to the objective framework of our experience. So I must be able to relate any given representation to an objective world in order for it to count as mine.

On the other hand, self-consciousness would also be impossible if I represented multiple objective worlds, even if I could relate all of my representations to some objective world or other. In that case, I could not become conscious of an identical self that has, say, representation 1 in space-time A and representation 2 in space-time B. It may be possible to imagine disjointed spaces and times, but it is not possible to represent them as objectively real. So self-consciousness requires that I can relate all of my representations to a single objective world. The reason why I must represent this one objective world by means of a unified and unbounded space-time is that, as Kant argued in the Transcendental Aesthetic, space and time are the pure forms of human intuition. If we had different forms of intuition, then our experience would still have to constitute a unified whole in order for us to be self-conscious, but this would not be a spatio-temporal whole. So Kant distinguishes between space and time as pure forms of intuition, which belong solely to sensibility; and the formal intuitions of space and time or space-time , which are unified by the understanding B160—161.

These formal intuitions are the spatio-temporal whole within which our understanding constructs experience in accordance with the categories. So Kant concludes on this basis that the understanding is the true law-giver of nature. Our understanding does not provide the matter or content of our experience, but it does provide the basic formal structure within which we experience any matter received through our senses. He holds that there is a single fundamental principle of morality, on which all specific moral duties are based. He calls this moral law as it is manifested to us the categorical imperative see 5. The moral law is a product of reason, for Kant, while the basic laws of nature are products of our understanding. There are important differences between the senses in which we are autonomous in constructing our experience and in morality.

The moral law does not depend on any qualities that are peculiar to human nature but only on the nature of reason as such, although its manifestation to us as a categorical imperative as a law of duty reflects the fact that the human will is not necessarily determined by pure reason but is also influenced by other incentives rooted in our needs and inclinations; and our specific duties deriving from the categorical imperative do reflect human nature and the contingencies of human life. Despite these differences, however, Kant holds that we give the moral law to ourselves, as we also give the general laws of nature to ourselves, though in a different sense. Moreover, we each necessarily give the same moral law to ourselves, just as we each construct our experience in accordance with the same categories. Its highest principle is self-consciousness, on which our knowledge of the basic laws of nature is based. Given sensory data, our understanding constructs experience according to these a priori laws. Practical philosophy is about how the world ought to be ibid. Its highest principle is the moral law, from which we derive duties that command how we ought to act in specific situations.

Kant also claims that reflection on our moral duties and our need for happiness leads to the thought of an ideal world, which he calls the highest good see section 6. Given how the world is theoretical philosophy and how it ought to be practical philosophy , we aim to make the world better by constructing or realizing the highest good. In theoretical philosophy, we use our categories and forms of intuition to construct a world of experience or nature. In practical philosophy, we use the moral law to construct the idea of a moral world or a realm of ends that guides our conduct 4:433 , and ultimately to transform the natural world into the highest good.

Канта при участии Института Европы РАН — провели специальную научно-экспертную сессию «Наследие Иммануила Канта для современных международных отношений». В ходе мероприятия участники рассмотрели широкий спектр проблем теории и практики современных международных отношений и безопасности через призму политической и международно-правовой мысли выдающегося философа.

В центре внимания не только наиболее острые проблемы развития современного политического миропорядка, глобальной и региональной безопасности, но и обстановка в Балтийско-Арктическом регионе, а также вопросы мирового социально-экономического и политического развития. В специальной сессии приняли участие ведущие специалисты в области международной политики из России, Финляндии, Германии, Индии и Республики Беларусь.

Neither stars nor even galaxies would survive a disaster like this. If the second hypothesis is correct and dark energy is really a quintessence, then the future may hold a lot of amazing and unpleasant surprises. Story Saved You can find this story in My Bookmarks.

In a large auditorium, Macron outlined climate issues by integrating them with other challenges, including energy, competitiveness, and production. After taking action to "overcome our dependence on Russian fossil fuels," the EU must now pursue the "deployment of renewable energies and [the] deployment of nuclear power" to build "an atomic Europe. You have 46.