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Лауреат Каннского кинофестиваля, французский режиссёр Лоран Канте умер в 63 года
Мы никогда не должны забывать об этом. Европа не просто кусок земли — это концепция человечества", — подчеркнул Эммануэль Макрон. Россия вынуждает Макрона вновь призывать к "европейскому кредиту" ради инвестиций в вооружениеВо время выступления в Сорбонне Эммануэль Макрон затронул вопрос безопасности Европы из-за "угрозы со стороны России", пишет Le Figaro. Французский президент в очередной раз громко заявил, что континенту необходимо вооружаться. Читатели издания не оценили эту воинственность — и кое-чем Макрона пристыдили. Речь об идеологии, которая, как ее ни маскировали, по своей сути является опасной, ксенофобской, империалистической и милитаристской. Многочисленные американские войны наглядно демонстрируют последствия этой идеологии. Эммануэль Макрон, по-видимому, хотел бы скопировать модель и перенести ее на Европу.
При этом он понимает, что вассальный статус Европы в отношениях с США, — серьезное препятствие к реализации этой задумки. Правда, как я уже писал, вассальный статус не мешает Макрону, когда, по его мнению, не время возмущаться, и движут им в эти моменты исключительно французские, а не европейские интересы. Кроме того, слова о том, что Европа "особенная", конечно, справедливы, но не в том смысле или не только в том, о котором говорит французский президент. Ведь Европа — колыбель колониализма, тяжелой и жестокой эксплуатации остального мира. Вспомним, что именно Франция была одним из лидеров этого порядка при всех ее прогрессивных достижениях, которые у нее не отнять, но которые ее и не оправдывают. Сейчас постепенно освобождаются некоторые страны Западной Африки, которые еще долго после формального обретения самостоятельности оставались под косвенным французским экономическим и политическим контролем. Восстания в таких странах, как Буркина-Фасо, Нигер, Мали, и даже демократический переворот в Сенегале показывают ослабление французского влияния, а значит, и ограничение возможностей Парижа эксплуатировать эти бедные, но богатые ресурсами, африканские страны.
Понятно, что французскую элиту устраивает нарратив о том, что все это происходит из-за "российского влияния", хотя это мнение далеко от истины. Более того, тут снова кроется глубокое унижение местных народов и их воли к суверенитету. Европе действительно нужно меняться.
Ломоносова Валерий Семенов выступил с докладом "Сознание и мышление как основа Кантовской трансцендентальной философии". Профессор Самаркандского университета Алексей Крюков и приват-доцент Геттингенского университета, профессор Самаркандского университета Гутшмидт Хольгер подискутировали на тему познания опыта и разграничения понятий "явление" и "феномен".
С одной стороны, попытаться найти оригинального Канта - это задача фактически каждого поколения. С другой стороны, попытаться связать и по-хорошему использовать учение Канта для решения заново или впервые возникающих проблем - это задача каждого нового поколения. Тема исследования Канта не будет исчерпана еще следующие лет триста, - отметила научный директор Академии Кантианы БФУ им. Канта" Актуальность работ Канта можно было проследить и по многочисленным вопросам, которые докладчикам на сессиях задавали прямо из зала. Так, например, врио директора Института философии РАН Абдусаламу Гусейнову пришлось объяснять, чем практическая философия по Канту отличается от моральной.
Однако, насколько мне известно, философ никогда их сильно не разграничивал.
По слухам, футболист сообщил своим представителям о готовности присоединиться к команде Микеля Артеты этим летом. Сообщается, что финансовые условия будут аналогичными тем, которые есть у Канте в «Челси» на данный момент. Материалы по теме.
To miss this distinction would mean to commit the error of subreption , and, as he says in the last chapter of the dissertation, only in avoiding this error does metaphysics flourish. While it is true that Kant wrote his greatest works relatively late in life, there is a tendency to underestimate the value of his earlier works. Recent Kant scholarship has devoted more attention to these "pre-critical" writings and has recognized a degree of continuity with his mature work.
In correspondence with his ex-student and friend Markus Herz , Kant admitted that, in the inaugural dissertation, he had failed to account for the relation between our sensible and intellectual faculties. Kant also credited David Hume with awakening him from a "dogmatic slumber" in which he had unquestioningly accepted the tenets of both religion and natural philosophy. Ideas such as causality , morality , and objects are not evident in experience, so their reality may be questioned. Kant felt that reason could remove this skepticism, and he set himself to solving these problems. Kant was quite upset with its reception. Recognizing the need to clarify the original treatise, Kant wrote the Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics in 1783 as a summary of its main views. In 1786, Karl Leonhard Reinhold published a series of public letters on Kantian philosophy.
Friedrich Jacobi had accused the recently deceased Gotthold Ephraim Lessing a distinguished dramatist and philosophical essayist of Spinozism. The controversy gradually escalated into a debate about the values of the Enlightenment and the value of reason. Most of his subsequent work focused on other areas of philosophy. The 1790 Critique of the Power of Judgment the third Critique applied the Kantian system to aesthetics and teleology. There were several journals devoted solely to defending and criticizing Kantian philosophy. Despite his success, philosophical trends were moving in another direction. In what was one of his final acts expounding a stance on philosophical questions, Kant opposed these developments and publicly denounced Fichte in an open letter in 1799.
Kant always cut a curious figure in his lifetime for his modest, rigorously scheduled habits, which have been referred to as clocklike. Heinrich Heine observed the magnitude of "his destructive, world-crushing thoughts" and considered him a sort of philosophical "executioner", comparing him to Robespierre with the observation that both men "represented in the highest the type of provincial bourgeois. Nature had destined them to weigh coffee and sugar, but Fate determined that they should weigh other things and placed on the scales of the one a king, on the scales of the other a god. Originally, Kant was buried inside the cathedral, but in 1880 his remains were moved to a neo-Gothic chapel adjoining the northeast corner of the cathedral. Over the years, the chapel became dilapidated and was demolished to make way for the mausoleum, which was built on the same location. The tomb and its mausoleum are among the few artifacts of German times preserved by the Soviets after they captured the city. This new evidence of the power of human reason, called into question for many the traditional authority of politics and religion.
In particular, the modern mechanistic view of the world called into question the very possibility of morality; for, if there is no agency, there cannot be any responsibility. What should I do? What may I hope? It argues that even though we cannot, strictly know that we are free, we can—and for practical purposes, must—think of ourselves as free. In brief, Kant argues that the mind itself necessarily makes a constitutive contribution to knowledge , that this contribution is transcendental rather than psychological, and that to act autonomously is to act according to rational moral principles. First, Kant makes a distinction in terms of the source of the content of knowledge: Cognitions a priori: "cognition independent of all experience and even of all the impressions of the senses". Cognitions a posteriori: cognitions that have their sources in experience—that is, which are empirical.
These can also be called "judgments of clarification".
Последние дни Иммануила Канта (1994) Les derniers jours d Emmanuel Kant
Kant jettisoned traditional theistic proofs for God as utilized by natural theology, but sought to ground ethics, in part, in his concepts of categorical imperatives or universal maxims to guide morality. Эммануэль, но не Кант! Шольц для Путина является более весомой фигурой, который представляет интересы бизнеса Германии. Путин видит давление, которому подвергается. подкасты – радио sputnik, эммануэль макрон, нато, евросоюз, мулен руж, вторая мировая война (1939-1945), европа, польша, россия, анджей дуда, политика – радио sputnik, боевые действия. Emmanuel Kant. Emmanuel Kant. Follow new publications. French President Emmanuel Macron on Thursday urged Europe to wake up to the fact that it was not sufficiently armed in the face of global threats such as Russian aggression that pose an existential. Иммануил Кант – самый русский из европейских и самый европейский из русских философов. Он родился и всю жизнь работал в Кенигсберге – сегодня это Калининград, несколько лет даже.
Собрались с мыслями. 300 лет Иммануилу Канту. В чем причины русского "антикантианства"? 25.04.2024
Смотрите 57 фотографии онлайн по теме кант мемы. подкасты – радио sputnik, эммануэль макрон, нато, евросоюз, мулен руж, вторая мировая война (1939-1945), европа, польша, россия, анджей дуда, политика – радио sputnik, боевые действия. Слушайте Doing Nothing with Emmanuel Kant от ParisPiano на Deezer. Благодаря потоковой трансляции музыки на Deezer вы можете слушать более 120 млн треков. Последние дни Иммануила Канта: Directed by Philippe Collin. Иммануил Кант с младенчества, просто по праву рождения, был зачислен в гильдию шорников.
Голосование "Великие имена": в самолётах Канта уже называют "Эммануилом"
What lessons can be learned from it? Steve Bissonnette and Christian Boyer reviewed research from eight countries on these questions. The decline in learning seems to be demonstrated for all clienteles, and even more strongly for children in primary schools from less fortunate families, less educated and for those who have learning difficulties or who are fragile in their learning. This conclusion is consistent with what we observed about the virtual school before the pandemic and strongly suggests that, if there is no choice, as was the case with the pandemic, it can be. But if we have the choice … Can one-off innovations be desirable and welcome? Without a doubt. For example, I recently had a lot of fun learning in the scientific journal Physics Education September 2021 how, in physics class, we could, by different methods, measure the height of a building using only a cell phone and everyday objects. How many methods, you ask?
With what effects on learning? However, we should not forget other harmful effects of the use of social networks in general and cell phones in particular, effects which are increasingly well documented.
Приблизительно в те же годы в значительной степени был возбуждён интерес исследователей к научному наследию Канта. В рамках дисциплины «Немецкая классическая философия» значение его как учёного и мыслителя признавалось, бесспорно, но он рассматривался как хоть и первый, но всё же в общем ряду немецких философов: Кант-Гегель-Маркс. Упор делался на материализм и диалектику Канта, но в советское время всё же они затенялись величиной Гегеля — в современной же философии гораздо большее внимание уделяется как раз Канту. Наиболее крупные исследования Канта появились в середине 1980-х годов. После распада СССР научное сообщество отошло от рассмотрения научной проблематики через материалистическую или религиозную призму.
Появились новые фундаментальные исследования, которые смотрят на кантианство под другим углом. Главный результат — немецкое Просвещение окончательно реабилитировано в глазах научного сообщества, а кантианство окончательно осознано им как самостоятельно значимое течение. Кант в России сегодня Застрельщиком в деле продвижения кантианства в современной российской науке выступает Калининградский государственный университет, где логическое кантоведение — одно из ведущих направлений исследований на местном философском факультете. Ещё с 1975 года здесь, правда, периодически меняя название и с разной регулярностью, выпускается «Кантовский сборник». На базе университета проводятся научно-практические конференции с международным участием «Кантовские чтения», на которых ведущие специалисты представляют результаты своих исследований кантовской философии. Проводятся подобные конференции и в других вузах, но там, как правило, они приурочены к юбилейным датам — в Институте философии Российской академии наук, Московском государственном университете имени М. Ломоносова, Российском государственном гуманитарном университете, Санкт-Петербургском государственном университете, ряде региональных вузов.
Международный характер этих конференций ознаменовал заодно и постепенное налаживание связей между российскими и зарубежными кантоведами. В день, когда читатель увидит эту статью, в Балтийском федеральном университете, который, кстати, носит имя великого философа, состоится Международный Кантовский конгресс — масштабнейшее мероприятие, совмещающее в себе научную конференцию, философский симпозиум, различные научно-популярные и культурные мероприятия. Конгресс станет важной частью празднования 300-летия со дня рождения Канта, Указ о праздновании которого подписан ещё 20 мая 2021 года Президент Российской Федерации Владимир Владимирович Путин. В рамках этих мероприятий разработаны новые экскурсионные маршруты, арт-события, реализованы кинопроекты и конкурсные мероприятия, учреждениями культуры подготовлены новые выставки и обновлены старые экспозиции. Так, в Калининградской музее янтаря к юбилею Канта воссоздана обстановка его кабинета — помимо философии, он увлекался минералогией и даже изучал свойства балтийского янтаря, в изобилии издавна имевшегося в Восточной Пруссии. А для самого города Калининграда философ уже давно стал своеобразным «маскотом», лицом города. В сувенирных лавках можно найти книги, магнитики, статуэтки, открытки и прочую продукцию с его изображением и цитатами.
Ещё в 1950-е годы была завершена перепланировка усыпальницы Канта, посетить которую считает своим долгом каждый приезжающий в Калининград. В здании бывшего Кафедрального собора, на его третьем и четвёртом этажах, с 1995 года работает музей великого мыслителя, ведущий большую научную и просветительскую работу. В экспозиции представлены документы, книги и другие экспонаты, связанные с его жизнью. Ещё один Кантовский музей работает с 2018 года в посёлке Веселовка Черняховского района Калининградской области в бывшей усадьбе пастора прихода Юдшен. А в Балтийском университете имени Канта создан мемориальный кабинет-музей. Помимо этого, необходимо упомянуть и топонимических объектах. В Калининграде имеется и улица Канта получившая это название ещё при немцах, и именовавшаяся как Кантштрассе , и живописный остров Канта бывший Кнайпхоф , на котором как раз и находится Кафедральный собор с усыпальницей великого мыслителя, и даже закусочные его имени.
В 1992 году был воссоздан поставленный ещё в 1857 году в городе памятник Иммануилу Канту. Эта скульптура бесследно исчезла ещё во время Второй Мировой войны, а взамен него на постаменте несколько десятилетий находился вождь немецкого пролетариата Эрнст Тельман. Новодел отлили по сохранившейся модели, и теперь он стоит примерно на том же месте, что и ранее. Географические объекты с именем Канта есть и в самой Германии, однако почитание этого великого немца не имеет аналогичной практики, и уж совершенно точно не выдерживает никакого сравнения с Калининградом, который с небывалом размахом в эти дни празднует кантовский юбилей.
Twenge is to ban cellphones in class, which would improve the quality of relationships between people. Kant would undoubtedly add that this would also facilitate learning and would say how. Kant and the educational benefits of immobility Kant is such an important name in so many areas of philosophy that one might forget that he was also interested in education.
One of his ideas concerns the importance of keeping still for children. Let us translate: through this window created by immobility and listening, and by the attention it allows, ideas can come to their senses. This idea obviously raises important questions and debates about the nature and role of authority in education. This is because the means discipline here seem to contradict the intended end freedom and autonomy. But let us leave these questions aside and transpose what Kant said in the XVIIIe century in our time and to the infinite and so irresistible stimuli that cellphones and social networks constantly provoke. One can easily see in this an immense danger for the very practice of transmitting and understanding ideas and knowledge, and for the formation of work habits. A danger so great that the ban on cellphones in the classroom, especially for the youngest, can be considered a good idea.
Like everything you see in the Kaliningrad region - said Alikhanov. He added that any prudent owner must deal with the inheritance received, and said that Russian thought often opposed Kant.
Moreover, the Russian Federation now has plenty of German trophies. Recently, a slightly damaged Leopard 2A5 tank was removed from the battlefield.
Канте прошёл вторую часть медобследования перед переходом в «Аль-Иттихад»
Macron said Europe also risks falling behind economically in a context where global free-trade rules are being challenged by major competitors, and he said it should aim to become a global leader in artificial intelligence, quantum computing, space, biotechnologies and renewable energy. Europe needs less fragmented markets for energy, telecoms and financial services, and must also cut red tape, he added. The French leader hopes his speech will have the same impact as a similar address at the Sorbonne he made seven years ago that prefigured some significant EU policy shifts.
Он родился и всю жизнь работал в Кенигсберге — сегодня это Калининград, несколько лет даже был российским подданным. Тем не менее в нашей стране созданная им теория не столь популярна. В чем причины русского «антикантианства»?
The first, "Analytic of Concepts", is concerned with establishing the universality and necessity of the pure concepts of the understanding i. The second, "Analytic of Principles", is concerned with the application of those pure concepts in empirical judgments. This second section is longer than the first and is further divided into many sub-sections.
These twelve basic categories define what it is to be a thing in general—that is, they articulate the necessary conditions according to which something is a possible object of experience. These, in conjunction with the a priori forms of intuition, are the basis of all synthetic a priori cognition. The first, known as the "metaphysical deduction", proceeds analytically from a table of the Aristotelian logical functions of judgment.
As Kant was aware, this assumes precisely what the skeptic rejects, namely, the existence of synthetic a priori cognition. For this reason, Kant also supplies a synthetic argument that does not depend upon the assumption in dispute. Kant himself said that it is the one that cost him the most labor.
The task of the "Analytic of Principles" is to show both that they must universally apply to objects given in actual experience i. The second book continues this line of argument in four chapters, each associated with one of the category groupings. In some cases, it adds a connection to the spatial dimension of intuition to the categories it analyzes.
Some commentators consider this the most significant section of the Critique. He argues that the unity of time implies that "all change must consist in the alteration of states in an underlying substance, whose existence and quantity must be unchangeable or conserved. That was the end of the chapter in the A edition of the Critique.
The B edition includes one more short section, "The Refutation of Idealism". In this section, by analysis of the concept of self-consciousness, Kant argues that his transcendental idealism is a "critical" or "formal" idealism that does not deny the existence of reality apart from our subjective representations. Against this, Kant reasserts his own insistence upon the necessity of a sensible component in all genuine knowledge.
In particular, it is concerned to demonstrate as spurious the efforts of reason to arrive at knowledge independent of sensibility. This endeavor, Kant argues, is doomed to failure, which he claims to demonstrate by showing that reason, unbounded by sense, is always capable of generating opposing or otherwise incompatible conclusions. Like "the light dove, in free flight cutting through the air, the resistance of which it feels", reason "could get the idea that it could do even better in airless space".
He presents the speculative excesses of traditional metaphysics as inherent in our very capacity of reason. Moreover, he argues that its products are not without some carefully qualified regulative value. They are different from the concepts of understanding in that they are not limited by the critical stricture limiting knowledge to the conditions of possible experience and its objects.
Kant replaces the first with the positive results of the first part of the Critique. He proposes to replace the following three with his later doctrines of anthropology, the metaphysical foundations of natural science, and the critical postulation of human freedom and morality. He does this by developing contradictions in each of the three metaphysical disciplines that he contends are in fact pseudosciences.
In this context, it not possible to do much more than enumerate the topics of discussion. The first chapter addresses what Kant terms the paralogisms—i. He argues that one cannot take the mere thought of "I" in the proposition "I think" as the proper cognition of "I" as an object.
In this way, he claims to debunk various metaphysical theses about the substantiality, unity, and self-identity of the soul. Originally, Kant had thought that all transcendental illusion could be analyzed in antinomic terms.
Проект направлен на развитие научно-экспертного и общественного диалога между странами большого Балтийско-Скандинавского региона: странами ЕС — с одной стороны и Россией и Белоруссией — с другой, с привлечением экспертов из других стран и регионов мира. Главная цель — возобновление научно-экспертного диалога по «второму треку» по широкому перечню тематик между российскими и европейскими учеными: от социальных, экономических, экологических, культурных до проблем военной и невоенной безопасности. Комментарии 0.
Doing Nothing with Emmanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) is the central figure in modern philosophy. He synthesized early modern rationalism and empiricism, set the terms for much of nineteenth and twentieth century philosophy. Эммануэль (а именно такое имя при рождении получил будущий гений философии) Кант родился 22 апреля 1724 года в Кёнигсберге в семье шорника – мастера по изготовлению. emmanuelle_kant. ·@emmakant·. Loving life. Browse Getty Images' premium collection of high-quality, authentic Emmanuel Kant stock photos, royalty-free images, and pictures.
Голосование "Великие имена": в самолётах Канта уже называют "Эммануилом"
Жульничать неэтично, потому что так вы подрываете ожидания других разумных существ. Вы относитесь к правилам, на которые согласились вместе с другими, как к средству для достижения своей цели. Прибегать к насилию неэтично по тем же причинам: вы используете человека для достижения личных или политических целей. Что ещё попадает под действие этого принципа Лень Я ленюсь не меньше других и часто виню себя за это. Все мы знаем, что, бездельничая, неизбежно вредим себе в долгосрочной перспективе. Но почему-то это не останавливает. Однако, с точки зрения Канта, лень неэтична вовсе не поэтому. Он считал, что у каждого человека есть моральный долг: всегда поступать наилучшим образом. Не для выгоды, самооценки или общественной пользы. Нужно стараться сделать всё от себя зависящее, потому что иначе вы относитесь к себе как к средству, а не как к цели.
Сидя на диване и в двадцатый раз обновляя ленту в соцсетях, вы используете своё сознание и внимание только как средство для получения удовольствия. Вы не раскрываете весь потенциал своего сознания. Согласно Канту, это не просто плохо, а неэтично. Зависимость Обычно мы считаем зависимость аморальной, потому что она наносит вред окружающим. Но Кант утверждал, что злоупотребление алкоголем в первую очередь аморально по отношению к самому себе. Он не был совсем занудой. За обедом Кант выпивал немного вина, а по утрам курил трубку. Он не выступал против всех удовольствий. Он был против чистого эскапизма.
Кант считал, что нужно смотреть проблемам в лицо. Что страдание иногда оправданно и необходимо. Поэтому использовать алкоголь или другие средства для того, чтобы убежать от жизни , неэтично. Вы используете свой рассудок и свободу как средство для достижения определённой цели. В данном случае — чтобы в очередной раз словить кайф. Желание угодить другим Что же тут неэтичного, скажете вы. Разве старание сделать людей счастливыми не проявление нравственности? Не в том случае, когда вы делаете это ради одобрения. Когда вы хотите угодить, ваши слова и поступки больше не отражают настоящие мысли и чувства.
То есть вы используете самого себя для достижения цели. Но дальше — хуже. Вы меняете своё поведение, чтобы понравиться другим. Манипулируете их представлениями о вас, чтобы получить одобрение. А значит, используете их как средство для достижения цели. Это основа токсичных отношений. Манипуляции и принуждение Даже когда вы не лжёте, но общаетесь с человеком, чтобы получить от него что-то без его чётко выраженного согласия, вы ведёте себя неэтично. Кант придавал много значения согласию. Он считал, что это единственная возможность для здоровых взаимоотношений между людьми.
Для того времени это была радикальная идея, да и сегодня нам трудно её принять. Сейчас вопрос согласия острее всего стоит в двух сферах. Во-первых, секс и романтические отношения. По правилу Канта, всё, кроме чётко выраженного и трезвого согласия , этически неприемлемо. Сегодня это особенно наболевший вопрос. Лично у меня впечатление, что люди его слишком усложняют. Уже начинает казаться, что на свидании нужно 20 раз спросить разрешения, прежде чем что-то сделать. Это не так. Главное — проявлять уважение.
Скажите, что вы чувствуете, спросите, что чувствует другой человек, и с уважением примите ответ. Никаких сложностей. Уважение занимает важное место в системе ценностей Канта. Он утверждал, что у всех разумных существ есть достоинство и с этим нужно считаться.
Europe needs less fragmented markets for energy, telecoms and financial services, and must also cut red tape, he added. The French leader hopes his speech will have the same impact as a similar address at the Sorbonne he made seven years ago that prefigured some significant EU policy shifts.
How is a systematic unity of this experience possible?
How is autonomous action possible? How is a perception of beauty possible?
Despite his success, philosophical trends were moving in another direction.
In what was one of his final acts expounding a stance on philosophical questions, Kant opposed these developments and publicly denounced Fichte in an open letter in 1799. Kant always cut a curious figure in his lifetime for his modest, rigorously scheduled habits, which have been referred to as clocklike. Heinrich Heine observed the magnitude of "his destructive, world-crushing thoughts" and considered him a sort of philosophical "executioner", comparing him to Robespierre with the observation that both men "represented in the highest the type of provincial bourgeois.
Nature had destined them to weigh coffee and sugar, but Fate determined that they should weigh other things and placed on the scales of the one a king, on the scales of the other a god. Originally, Kant was buried inside the cathedral, but in 1880 his remains were moved to a neo-Gothic chapel adjoining the northeast corner of the cathedral. Over the years, the chapel became dilapidated and was demolished to make way for the mausoleum, which was built on the same location.
The tomb and its mausoleum are among the few artifacts of German times preserved by the Soviets after they captured the city. This new evidence of the power of human reason, called into question for many the traditional authority of politics and religion. In particular, the modern mechanistic view of the world called into question the very possibility of morality; for, if there is no agency, there cannot be any responsibility.
What should I do? What may I hope? It argues that even though we cannot, strictly know that we are free, we can—and for practical purposes, must—think of ourselves as free.
In brief, Kant argues that the mind itself necessarily makes a constitutive contribution to knowledge , that this contribution is transcendental rather than psychological, and that to act autonomously is to act according to rational moral principles. First, Kant makes a distinction in terms of the source of the content of knowledge: Cognitions a priori: "cognition independent of all experience and even of all the impressions of the senses". Cognitions a posteriori: cognitions that have their sources in experience—that is, which are empirical.
These can also be called "judgments of clarification". Synthetic proposition: a proposition whose predicate concept is not contained in its subject concept; e. These can also be called "judgments of amplification".
All analytic propositions are a priori it is analytically true that no analytic proposition could be a posteriori. By contrast, a synthetic proposition is one the content of which includes something new. The truth or falsehood of a synthetic statement depends upon something more than what is contained in its concepts.
The most obvious form of synthetic proposition is a simple empirical observation. This is because, unlike a posteriori cognition, a priori cognition has "true or strict... It is the twofold aim of the Critique both to prove and to explain the possibility of this knowledge.
In general terms, the former is a non-discursive representation of a particular object, and the latter is a discursive or mediate representation of a general type of object. Knowledge generated on this basis, under certain conditions, can be synthetic a priori. In this "transcendental dialectic", Kant argues that many of the claims of traditional rationalist metaphysics violate the criteria he claims to establish in the first, "constructive" part of his book.
Something is "transcendental" if it is a necessary condition for the possibility of experience, and "idealism" denotes some form of mind-dependence that must be further specified. It argues that all genuine knowledge requires a sensory component, and thus that metaphysical claims that transcend the possibility of sensory confirmation can never amount to knowledge. On this particular view, the thing-in-itself is not numerically identical the phenomenal empirical object.
Kant also spoke of the thing in itself or transcendent object as a product of the human understanding as it attempts to conceive of objects in abstraction from the conditions of sensibility.
Канте может перейти в «Арсенал» летом
It was thus in large measure due to the work of the idealist philosophers and their immediate disciples that the absolutist we may as well say Fascist tradition was revived in nineteenth century Europe. The idealists owed much of their success in the political field to the subtlety of their methods. They were able to revive faith in etatism and authoritarianism largely because they were able to give both these doctrines such a new and attractive dress that they were scarcely recognizable at first sight. They were careful to avoid all the old arguments and all the old slogans of their predecessors in the seventeenth century. Not once did the idealists quote Scripture in defense of passive obedience; not once did they preach the divine right of kings in the old sense of the word.
To have done so would have been impolitic. Hence the members of the idealist school were careful never to attack these terms—they were merely so reinterpreted as to become meaningless.
Instead, it interprets transcendental idealism as a fundamentally epistemological theory that distinguishes between two standpoints on the objects of experience: the human standpoint, from which objects are viewed relative to epistemic conditions that are peculiar to human cognitive faculties namely, the a priori forms of our sensible intuition ; and the standpoint of an intuitive intellect, from which the same objects could be known in themselves and independently of any epistemic conditions Allison 2004. Human beings cannot really take up the latter standpoint but can form only an empty concept of things as they exist in themselves by abstracting from all the content of our experience and leaving only the purely formal thought of an object in general. So transcendental idealism, on this interpretation, is essentially the thesis that we are limited to the human standpoint, and the concept of a thing in itself plays the role of enabling us to chart the boundaries of the human standpoint by stepping beyond them in abstract but empty thought. One criticism of this epistemological version of the two-aspects theory is that it avoids the objections to other interpretations by attributing to Kant a more limited project than the text of the Critique warrants. There are passages that support this reading. The transcendental deduction The transcendental deduction is the central argument of the Critique of Pure Reason and one of the most complex and difficult texts in the history of philosophy.
Given its complexity, there are naturally many different ways of interpreting the deduction. The goal of the transcendental deduction is to show that we have a priori concepts or categories that are objectively valid, or that apply necessarily to all objects in the world that we experience. To show this, Kant argues that the categories are necessary conditions of experience, or that we could not have experience without the categories. For they then are related necessarily and a priori to objects of experience, since only by means of them can any object of experience be thought at all. The transcendental deduction of all a priori concepts therefore has a principle toward which the entire investigation must be directed, namely this: that they must be recognized as a priori conditions of the possibility of experiences whether of the intuition that is encountered in them, or of the thinking. Concepts that supply the objective ground of the possibility of experience are necessary just for that reason. Here Kant claims, against the Lockean view, that self-consciousness arises from combining or synthesizing representations with one another regardless of their content. In short, Kant has a formal conception of self-consciousness rather than a material one.
Since no particular content of my experience is invariable, self-consciousness must derive from my experience having an invariable form or structure, and consciousness of the identity of myself through all of my changing experiences must consist in awareness of the formal unity and law-governed regularity of my experience. The continuous form of my experience is the necessary correlate for my sense of a continuous self. There are at least two possible versions of the formal conception of self-consciousness: a realist and an idealist version. On the realist version, nature itself is law-governed and we become self-conscious by attending to its law-governed regularities, which also makes this an empiricist view of self-consciousness. The idea of an identical self that persists throughout all of our experience, on this view, arises from the law-governed regularity of nature, and our representations exhibit order and regularity because reality itself is ordered and regular. Kant rejects this realist view and embraces a conception of self-consciousness that is both formal and idealist. According to Kant, the formal structure of our experience, its unity and law-governed regularity, is an achievement of our cognitive faculties rather than a property of reality in itself. Our experience has a constant form because our mind constructs experience in a law-governed way.
In other words, even if reality in itself were law-governed, its laws could not simply migrate over to our mind or imprint themselves on us while our mind is entirely passive. We must exercise an active capacity to represent the world as combined or ordered in a law-governed way, because otherwise we could not represent the world as law-governed even if it were law-governed in itself. Moreover, this capacity to represent the world as law-governed must be a priori because it is a condition of self-consciousness, and we would already have to be self-conscious in order to learn from our experience that there are law-governed regularities in the world. So it is necessary for self-consciousness that we exercise an a priori capacity to represent the world as law-governed. But this would also be sufficient for self-consciousness if we could exercise our a priori capacity to represent the world as law-governed even if reality in itself were not law-governed. In that case, the realist and empiricist conception of self-consciousness would be false, and the formal idealist view would be true. Self-consciousness for Kant therefore involves a priori knowledge about the necessary and universal truth expressed in this principle of apperception, and a priori knowledge cannot be based on experience. The next condition is that self-consciousness requires me to represent an objective world distinct from my subjective representations — that is, distinct from my thoughts about and sensations of that objective world.
Kant uses this connection between self-consciousness and objectivity to insert the categories into his argument. In order to be self-conscious, I cannot be wholly absorbed in the contents of my perceptions but must distinguish myself from the rest of the world. But if self-consciousness is an achievement of the mind, then how does the mind achieve this sense that there is a distinction between the I that perceives and the contents of its perceptions? According to Kant, the mind achieves this sense by distinguishing representations that necessarily belong together from representations that are not necessarily connected but are merely associated in a contingent way. Imagine a house that is too large to fit into your visual field from your vantage point near its front door. Now imagine that you walk around the house, successively perceiving each of its sides. Eventually you perceive the entire house, but not all at once, and you judge that each of your representations of the sides of the house necessarily belong together as sides of one house and that anyone who denied this would be mistaken. But now imagine that you grew up in this house and associate a feeling of nostalgia with it.
You would not judge that representations of this house are necessarily connected with feelings of nostalgia. That is, you would not think that other people seeing the house for the first time would be mistaken if they denied that it is connected with nostalgia, because you recognize that this house is connected with nostalgia for you but not necessarily for everyone. The point here is not that we must successfully identify which representations necessarily belong together and which are merely associated contingently, but rather that to be self-conscious we must at least make this general distinction between objective and merely subjective connections of representations. That is the aim of the copula is in them: to distinguish the objective unity of given representations from the subjective. Kant is speaking here about the mental act of judging that results in the formation of a judgment. We must represent an objective world in order to distinguish ourselves from it, and we represent an objective world by judging that some representations necessarily belong together. Moreover, recall from 4. It follows that objective connections in the world cannot simply imprint themselves on our mind.
The understanding constructs experience by providing the a priori rules, or the framework of necessary laws, in accordance with which we judge representations to be objective. These rules are the pure concepts of the understanding or categories, which are therefore conditions of self-consciousness, since they are rules for judging about an objective world, and self-consciousness requires that we distinguish ourselves from an objective world. Kant identifies the categories in what he calls the metaphysical deduction, which precedes the transcendental deduction. But since categories are not mere logical functions but instead are rules for making judgments about objects or an objective world, Kant arrives at his table of categories by considering how each logical function would structure judgments about objects within our spatio-temporal forms of intuition. For example, he claims that categorical judgments express a logical relation between subject and predicate that corresponds to the ontological relation between substance and accident; and the logical form of a hypothetical judgment expresses a relation that corresponds to cause and effect. Taken together with this argument, then, the transcendental deduction argues that we become self-conscious by representing an objective world of substances that interact according to causal laws. To see why this further condition is required, consider that so far we have seen why Kant holds that we must represent an objective world in order to be self-conscious, but we could represent an objective world even if it were not possible to relate all of our representations to this objective world. For all that has been said so far, we might still have unruly representations that we cannot relate in any way to the objective framework of our experience.
So I must be able to relate any given representation to an objective world in order for it to count as mine. On the other hand, self-consciousness would also be impossible if I represented multiple objective worlds, even if I could relate all of my representations to some objective world or other. In that case, I could not become conscious of an identical self that has, say, representation 1 in space-time A and representation 2 in space-time B. It may be possible to imagine disjointed spaces and times, but it is not possible to represent them as objectively real. So self-consciousness requires that I can relate all of my representations to a single objective world. The reason why I must represent this one objective world by means of a unified and unbounded space-time is that, as Kant argued in the Transcendental Aesthetic, space and time are the pure forms of human intuition. If we had different forms of intuition, then our experience would still have to constitute a unified whole in order for us to be self-conscious, but this would not be a spatio-temporal whole. So Kant distinguishes between space and time as pure forms of intuition, which belong solely to sensibility; and the formal intuitions of space and time or space-time , which are unified by the understanding B160—161.
These formal intuitions are the spatio-temporal whole within which our understanding constructs experience in accordance with the categories. So Kant concludes on this basis that the understanding is the true law-giver of nature. Our understanding does not provide the matter or content of our experience, but it does provide the basic formal structure within which we experience any matter received through our senses. He holds that there is a single fundamental principle of morality, on which all specific moral duties are based. He calls this moral law as it is manifested to us the categorical imperative see 5. The moral law is a product of reason, for Kant, while the basic laws of nature are products of our understanding. There are important differences between the senses in which we are autonomous in constructing our experience and in morality. The moral law does not depend on any qualities that are peculiar to human nature but only on the nature of reason as such, although its manifestation to us as a categorical imperative as a law of duty reflects the fact that the human will is not necessarily determined by pure reason but is also influenced by other incentives rooted in our needs and inclinations; and our specific duties deriving from the categorical imperative do reflect human nature and the contingencies of human life.
Despite these differences, however, Kant holds that we give the moral law to ourselves, as we also give the general laws of nature to ourselves, though in a different sense. Moreover, we each necessarily give the same moral law to ourselves, just as we each construct our experience in accordance with the same categories. Its highest principle is self-consciousness, on which our knowledge of the basic laws of nature is based. Given sensory data, our understanding constructs experience according to these a priori laws. Practical philosophy is about how the world ought to be ibid. Its highest principle is the moral law, from which we derive duties that command how we ought to act in specific situations. Kant also claims that reflection on our moral duties and our need for happiness leads to the thought of an ideal world, which he calls the highest good see section 6. Given how the world is theoretical philosophy and how it ought to be practical philosophy , we aim to make the world better by constructing or realizing the highest good.
In theoretical philosophy, we use our categories and forms of intuition to construct a world of experience or nature. In practical philosophy, we use the moral law to construct the idea of a moral world or a realm of ends that guides our conduct 4:433 , and ultimately to transform the natural world into the highest good. Theoretical philosophy deals with appearances, to which our knowledge is strictly limited; and practical philosophy deals with things in themselves, although it does not give us knowledge about things in themselves but only provides rational justification for certain beliefs about them for practical purposes. The three traditional topics of Leibniz-Wolffian special metaphysics were rational psychology, rational cosmology, and rational theology, which dealt, respectively, with the human soul, the world-whole, and God. In the part of the Critique of Pure Reason called the Transcendental Dialectic, Kant argues against the Leibniz-Wolffian view that human beings are capable of a priori knowledge in each of these domains, and he claims that the errors of Leibniz-Wolffian metaphysics are due to an illusion that has its seat in the nature of human reason itself. According to Kant, human reason necessarily produces ideas of the soul, the world-whole, and God; and these ideas unavoidably produce the illusion that we have a priori knowledge about transcendent objects corresponding to them. This is an illusion, however, because in fact we are not capable of a priori knowledge about any such transcendent objects. Nevertheless, Kant attempts to show that these illusory ideas have a positive, practical use.
He thus reframes Leibniz-Wolffian special metaphysics as a practical science that he calls the metaphysics of morals. If this was not within his control at the time, then, while it may be useful to punish him in order to shape his behavior or to influence others, it nevertheless would not be correct to say that his action was morally wrong. Moral rightness and wrongness apply only to free agents who control their actions and have it in their power, at the time of their actions, either to act rightly or not. According to Kant, this is just common sense. On the compatibilist view, as Kant understands it, I am free whenever the cause of my action is within me. If we distinguish between involuntary convulsions and voluntary bodily movements, then on this view free actions are just voluntary bodily movements. The proximate causes of these movements are internal to the turnspit, the projectile, and the clock at the time of the movement. This cannot be sufficient for moral responsibility.
Why not? The reason, Kant says, is ultimately that the causes of these movements occur in time.
In defense of this appointment, Kant wrote his inaugural dissertation On the Form and Principles of the Sensible and the Intelligible World [c] This work saw the emergence of several central themes of his mature work, including the distinction between the faculties of intellectual thought and sensible receptivity. To miss this distinction would mean to commit the error of subreption , and, as he says in the last chapter of the dissertation, only in avoiding this error does metaphysics flourish.
While it is true that Kant wrote his greatest works relatively late in life, there is a tendency to underestimate the value of his earlier works. Recent Kant scholarship has devoted more attention to these "pre-critical" writings and has recognized a degree of continuity with his mature work. In correspondence with his ex-student and friend Markus Herz , Kant admitted that, in the inaugural dissertation, he had failed to account for the relation between our sensible and intellectual faculties. Kant also credited David Hume with awakening him from a "dogmatic slumber" in which he had unquestioningly accepted the tenets of both religion and natural philosophy.
Ideas such as causality , morality , and objects are not evident in experience, so their reality may be questioned. Kant felt that reason could remove this skepticism, and he set himself to solving these problems. Kant was quite upset with its reception. Recognizing the need to clarify the original treatise, Kant wrote the Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics in 1783 as a summary of its main views.
In 1786, Karl Leonhard Reinhold published a series of public letters on Kantian philosophy. Friedrich Jacobi had accused the recently deceased Gotthold Ephraim Lessing a distinguished dramatist and philosophical essayist of Spinozism. The controversy gradually escalated into a debate about the values of the Enlightenment and the value of reason. Most of his subsequent work focused on other areas of philosophy.
The 1790 Critique of the Power of Judgment the third Critique applied the Kantian system to aesthetics and teleology. There were several journals devoted solely to defending and criticizing Kantian philosophy. Despite his success, philosophical trends were moving in another direction. In what was one of his final acts expounding a stance on philosophical questions, Kant opposed these developments and publicly denounced Fichte in an open letter in 1799.
Kant always cut a curious figure in his lifetime for his modest, rigorously scheduled habits, which have been referred to as clocklike. Heinrich Heine observed the magnitude of "his destructive, world-crushing thoughts" and considered him a sort of philosophical "executioner", comparing him to Robespierre with the observation that both men "represented in the highest the type of provincial bourgeois. Nature had destined them to weigh coffee and sugar, but Fate determined that they should weigh other things and placed on the scales of the one a king, on the scales of the other a god. Originally, Kant was buried inside the cathedral, but in 1880 his remains were moved to a neo-Gothic chapel adjoining the northeast corner of the cathedral.
Over the years, the chapel became dilapidated and was demolished to make way for the mausoleum, which was built on the same location. The tomb and its mausoleum are among the few artifacts of German times preserved by the Soviets after they captured the city. This new evidence of the power of human reason, called into question for many the traditional authority of politics and religion. In particular, the modern mechanistic view of the world called into question the very possibility of morality; for, if there is no agency, there cannot be any responsibility.
What should I do? What may I hope? It argues that even though we cannot, strictly know that we are free, we can—and for practical purposes, must—think of ourselves as free. In brief, Kant argues that the mind itself necessarily makes a constitutive contribution to knowledge , that this contribution is transcendental rather than psychological, and that to act autonomously is to act according to rational moral principles.
First, Kant makes a distinction in terms of the source of the content of knowledge: Cognitions a priori: "cognition independent of all experience and even of all the impressions of the senses". Cognitions a posteriori: cognitions that have their sources in experience—that is, which are empirical.
Cognitions a posteriori: cognitions that have their sources in experience—that is, which are empirical. These can also be called "judgments of clarification". Synthetic proposition: a proposition whose predicate concept is not contained in its subject concept; e. These can also be called "judgments of amplification". All analytic propositions are a priori it is analytically true that no analytic proposition could be a posteriori. By contrast, a synthetic proposition is one the content of which includes something new.
The truth or falsehood of a synthetic statement depends upon something more than what is contained in its concepts. The most obvious form of synthetic proposition is a simple empirical observation. This is because, unlike a posteriori cognition, a priori cognition has "true or strict... It is the twofold aim of the Critique both to prove and to explain the possibility of this knowledge. In general terms, the former is a non-discursive representation of a particular object, and the latter is a discursive or mediate representation of a general type of object. Knowledge generated on this basis, under certain conditions, can be synthetic a priori. In this "transcendental dialectic", Kant argues that many of the claims of traditional rationalist metaphysics violate the criteria he claims to establish in the first, "constructive" part of his book. Something is "transcendental" if it is a necessary condition for the possibility of experience, and "idealism" denotes some form of mind-dependence that must be further specified.
It argues that all genuine knowledge requires a sensory component, and thus that metaphysical claims that transcend the possibility of sensory confirmation can never amount to knowledge. On this particular view, the thing-in-itself is not numerically identical the phenomenal empirical object. Kant also spoke of the thing in itself or transcendent object as a product of the human understanding as it attempts to conceive of objects in abstraction from the conditions of sensibility. Following this line of thought, some interpreters argue that the thing in itself does not represent a separate ontological domain but simply a way of considering objects by means of the understanding alone; this is known as the "two-aspect" view. Whereas the former was concerned with the contributions of the sensibility, the latter is concerned, first, with the contributions of the understanding "Transcendental Analytic" and, second, with the faculty of reason as the source of both metaphysical errors and genuine regulatory principles "Transcendental Dialectic". The "Transcendental Analytic" is further divided into two sections. The first, "Analytic of Concepts", is concerned with establishing the universality and necessity of the pure concepts of the understanding i. The second, "Analytic of Principles", is concerned with the application of those pure concepts in empirical judgments.
This second section is longer than the first and is further divided into many sub-sections. These twelve basic categories define what it is to be a thing in general—that is, they articulate the necessary conditions according to which something is a possible object of experience. These, in conjunction with the a priori forms of intuition, are the basis of all synthetic a priori cognition. The first, known as the "metaphysical deduction", proceeds analytically from a table of the Aristotelian logical functions of judgment. As Kant was aware, this assumes precisely what the skeptic rejects, namely, the existence of synthetic a priori cognition. For this reason, Kant also supplies a synthetic argument that does not depend upon the assumption in dispute. Kant himself said that it is the one that cost him the most labor. The task of the "Analytic of Principles" is to show both that they must universally apply to objects given in actual experience i.
The second book continues this line of argument in four chapters, each associated with one of the category groupings. In some cases, it adds a connection to the spatial dimension of intuition to the categories it analyzes.